India : MAP : Historical : (1934 - 1947)

Mountbatten Plan (Partition of India)

The Plan

The British government sent a Cabinet Mission to India in March 1946 to negotiate with Indian leaders and agree to the terms of the transfer of power.
After difficult negotiations a federal solution was proposed. Despite initial agreement, both sides eventually rejected the plan.
An interim government with representatives of all the Indian parties was proposed and implemented. However, it soon collapsed through lack of agreement. While the Muslim League consented to join the interim government the Indian National Congress refused. By the end of 1946 communal violence was escalating and the British began to fear that India would descend into civil war. The British government's representative, Lord Wavell, put forward a breakdown plan as a safeguard in the event of political Deadlock. Wavell, however, believed that once the disadvantages of the Pakistan scheme were exposed, Jinnah would see the advantages of working for the best possible terms inside a united India. He wrote:
'Unfortunately the fact that Pakistan, when soberly and realistically examined, is found to be a very unattractive proposition, will place the Moslems in a very disadvantageous position for making satisfactory terms with India for a Federal Union.' This view was based on a report, which claimed that a future Pakistan would have no manufacturing or industrial areas of importance: no ports, except Karachi, or rail centres. It was also argued that the connection between East and West Pakistan would be difficult to defend and maintain. The report concluded:
'It is hard to resist the conclusion that taking all considerations into account the splitting up of India will be the reverse of beneficial as far as the livelihood of its people is concerned'.

Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as Viceroy of India in 1947.

Mountbatten's first proposed solution for the Indian subcontinent, known as the 'May Plan', was rejected by Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru on the grounds it would cause the 'balkanisation of India'. The following month the 'May Plan' was substituted for the 'June Plan', in which provinceswould have to choose between India and Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab both voted for partition.




On 3 June 1947, Lord Mountbatten announced his plan. The salient features were:-

1. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity. The country would be partitioned but so would Punjab and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that emerged would meet both the congress and League's position to some extent. The League's position on Pakistan was conceded to the extent that it would be created, but the Congress position on unity would be taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. Whether it was ruling out independence for the princes or unity for Bengal or Hyderabad's joining up with Pakistan instead of India, Mountbatten firmly supported Congress on these issues.
   
2. The Mountbatten Plan sought to effect an early transfer of power on the basis of Dominion status to two successor states, India and Pakistan. For Britain, Dominion Status offered a chance of keeping India in the commonwealth for India's economic strength and defence potential were deemed sounder and Britain had a greater value of trade and investment there.
   
3. The rationale for the early date for transfer of power was securing Congress agreement to Dominion status. The additional benefit was that the British could escape responsibility for the rapidly deteriorating communal situation.
   
4. A referendum was to be held in NWEP to ascertain whether the people in the area wanted to join India or not. The princely states would have the option of joining either of the two dominions or to remain independent. The Provinces of Assam, Punjab and Bengal were also to be divided. A boundary commission was to be set up to determine the boundaries of these states.

Reasons for the acceptance of "Partition" by the Congress

By accepting the Mountbatten Plan/Partition, the Congress was only accepting what had become inevitable because of the long-term failure of the Congress to draw in the Muslim masses into the national movement and stem the surging waves of Muslim communalism, which, especially since 1937, had been beating with increasing fury.




The Congress leaders felt by June, 1947 that only an immediate transfer of power could forestall the spread of Direct Action and communal disturbances. Sardar Patel rightly said, "a united India even if it was smaller in size was better than a disorganised and troubled and weak bigger India."

Difficulties created by the obstructionist policies and tactics of the League proved to the Congressthat the leaders of the Muslim League were concerned only with their own interests and the future of India would not be safe with them in the government. They would act as a stumbling block in the path of India's progress. The Congress leaders also felt that the continuance of British rule never was and never could be in the good interest of Indians. Sooner they quit, the better it would be.

Swadeshi Movement

Swadeshi Movement was a very popular pre-Gandhian movement. Emanated from the partition of Bengal the Swadeshi Movement gave tremendous inputs to the economy of the country.

Swadeshi Movement was a popular strategy for eradicating the British rule and for improving the economic conditions of the country. The concept of Swadeshi, as per Mahatma Gandhi, was to attain self-sufficiency which included employment of unemployed people by encouraging village industries and towards building a non-violent society. Thus, the main policies of the Swadeshi Movement included boycotting all types of British products and the restoration of all domestic products. The chief forerunners of Swadeshi Movement were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghose and Veer Savarkar. The writings and speeches of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and his associates paved the initial way. Tilak reached out to the masses through popular festivals. He transformed the traditional Ganapati Utsav into a public celebration where patriotic ideas could be spread. Later, he inaugurated a Shivaji festival for the same purpose. In 1906, Bengal honoured the great Maratha as a national hero. 


There were many other factors behind the growth of `The new spirit in India`. It was widely accepted by everyone that Britain was the cause of the country`s poverty. Three noteworthy books were published in the year 1901, which focused on the details of how Britain`s policies had destroyed India. The names of the books can be mentioned as Dadabhai Naoroji`s Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, R. C. Dutt`s Economic History of India, and William Digby`s ironically titled Prosperous British India. 


India was the country with once flourishing economy. At the same time the true face of European imperialism was being revealed. The belief in the supremacy of the imperial powers` military was being challenged. Moreover, various revolutions around the globe, like that in Ethiopia, Japan and others, had started to weaken Europe`s rule over Asia. The Partition of Bengal went into effect on 16th of October, 1905, which was observed as a day of mourning in Bengal. Normal and usual life had come to a halt on that unfaithful day. In Kolkata, thousands walked barefoot in silent processions to a mammoth meeting where the cornerstone of a federation hall, monument to United Bengal, was laid. The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was given a new turn, where the yellow thread that the people tied to one other`s wrists, symbolised the brotherhood between each other. 


The Swadeshi movement quickly gathered force in the country. Burning of British cloth in public places demonstrated the people`s determination not to rely on foreign products. The sale of English goods fell drastically, as Bombay Mills worked overtime to meet the demand for Swadeshi textiles. It became a matter of national and personal pride to wear coarse dhotis woven on local handlooms rather than fashionable Manchester cottons. Student volunteers further encouraged people to use Indian products. Popular enthusiasm was sustained by songs written by Rabindranath Tagore and others. Vande Mataram by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee became the national anthem. Further, the Swadeshi movement gave tremendous inputs to Indian industries. Home grown salt, sugar, matches and other products had started to be manufactured on native soil. On a larger scale, the movement gave a stimulus to Prafulla Chandra Roy`s Bengal Chemical Works. This action encouraged Jamshedji Tata to open his famous steel plant in Bihar. At the same time, Indian labours took their first real steps towards organisation. A series of strikes in Kolkata and other places demonstrated that the working class was growing weary of exploitation. 


Swadeshi Movement was described by Mahatma Gandhi as the soul of self rule in the country. 

Battle of Plassey

Battle of Plassey was the most decisive war that marked the initiation of British rule in India for the next two centuries. Battle of Plassey or Palashi took place between British East India Company and Nawabs of Bengal and his French allies. The battle occurred on June 23, 1757 at Palashi of Murshidabad District, on the bank of Bhagirathi River. Murshidabad, which is about 150 km north of Kolkata, was then capital of West Bengal. Siraj-Ud-Daulah, who was the last Nawab of Bengal, fought this battle to maintain his independence as a ruler. The French East India Company also sent a small army to join Nawab`s force against the British. 


The army commander Mirzafar of Siraj Ud Daulah`s side betrayed in the battle of Plassey and thereby the whole force of Nawab collapsed and as a consequence, the entire province of Bengal came under British. Company gained a huge amount of wealth from the Bengal treasury and used it to strengthen its military force. Thus Plassey earns its importance in Indian history as a key factor leading to the ascendance of British rule in India. The Battle of Plassey, also named as Battle of Palashi, which earned its name from a small village of same name located near the battlefield. 


The main reason behind the Battle of Plassey was the capture of Fort William by Siraj Ud Daulah during June 1756. Many historians found the battle of Plassey as the geopolitical ambition of the East India Company and it brought a larger dynamics of colonial conquest in the territory of India. 


Conflict between the Nawab and the East India Company intensified due to a number of reasons, which are as follows-

* The illegal use of Dastaks, which were export Trade Permits issued by the Mughal Dynasty in the year 1717. The British used this permits as the excuse for avoid taxes to Bengal Nawab. 


* British interfered with Nawab`s court and supported one of Siraz Ud Daulah`s aunt Ghaseti Begum, who was in opposition to the Nawab. Ghaseti`s treasurer`s son had escaped and took shelter in Fort William but Siraz demanded for his return. 


* Fort William became the safe shelter for the British and they added additional fortification and assembled ammunitions without the permission of Nawab. 


* The policy of the British officials was to help the Marwary merchants such as Jagat Sheth of Murshidabad. 


During the capture of Fort William an event occurred that was known as Black hole of Kolkata. A select committee of British House of Commons placed hundred and forty-six British prisoners in a small room measuring 18 by 15 feet and only twenty-three of the prisoners survived that night. The story was revealed in colonial literature but the facts were hugely altercated. Whatever was the original story, the Blackhole incident became a reason for the Battle of Plassey. 


The British were getting ready for the upcoming battle of Plassey. The British settlement at Fort William asked for assistance from Presidency of fort St. George at Chennai and Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles Watson were sent for the help of British in Bengal. They recaptured the fort and Calcutta again on January 2, 1757. Nawab Sirad Ud Daulah reached on Kolkata on February 5, 1757 and was surprised by the attack of the British at the dawn. The ultimate result was the Treaty of Alinagar on February 7, 1757. 


On the other hand the French influence was increasing in the court of Nawab, at the consent of French Governor General Joseph Francois Dupleix. The amount of French trade was growing in volume in Bengal. They lend the Nawab some soldiers to assist in operating heavy artillery pieces. 


Nawab Siraz Ud Daulah had to face problems from both side as along with the threat posed by British East India Company Ahmad Shah Abdali and his Afghan force proceeded towards Bengal after capturing and looting Delhi in 1756. Siraz sent the major portion of his troop to west to fight under the command of his close friend and ally, Ram Narain, the Diwan of Patna. 


Along with the external enemies an internal politics was intriguing against Siraj`s court in the capital Murshidabad. Siraj was not at all a popular leader. He was young and impulsive and had a tendency to make enemies very quickly. The worst part of this conspiracy was that Siraz`s wealthy and influential aunt Ghaseti Begum (Meherun-Nisa) wanted another nephew Shawkat Jang to enthrone as Nawab. 


Mir Jafar Ali Khan, who was grand -uncle of Siraz and Commander-In-Chief of Nawab`s army was also against the young Nawab and was in the conspiracy with Ghaseti Bagum. Eventually Mir Jafar joined the British side through the secret mediators like trader Amichand and William Watts. 


The East India Company decided to change the ruler of Bengal for their benefit even before Siraj`s rule. In 1752, Robert Orme wrote a letter to Lord Clive that contained the proposal of removal of Alivardi Khan, Siraj`s grandfather, who was the then Nawab of Bengal. After the death of Alivardi Khan, his nominated successor Siraz Ud Daulah took the charge of Bengal`s throne. Siraz was Alivardi`s grandson, whom he adopted. After the death of Alivardi the controversy started and British supported Alivardi`s eldest daughter Ghaseti Begum against Siraj. 


On October 13, 1756 an instruction from St. George reached Robert Clive that stated "to effect a junction with any powers in the province of Bengal that might be dissatisfied with the violence of the Nawab`s government or that might have pretensions to the Nawabship." According to the instruction, Clive employed William watts as Deputy, chief of Kashimbazar factory of the company, who was proficient in both Bengali and Persian language. This skill came into use to deal with Yar Latif Khan, one of the generals of Nawab`s army and Mir Jafar Ali Khan, Siraj`s grand uncle and army chief. 


The Select Committee of the Board of directors of east India Company approved `Coup D`etat` as the policy of Bengal on April 23rd, 1757. Mir Jafar, who was negotiating through an Armenian merchant Khojah Petrus Nicholas, was the ultimate choice of the East India Company. Finally on June 5, 1757 a written agreement was signed between Mir Jafar and Clive as company`s representative that stated that Mir Jafar would be appointed as Nawab of Bengal once Siraj was disposed. 


The army of East India Company was huge in number consisting of nine hundred and fifty Europeans and twenty one hundred native Indian Sepoys. The British had only few guns while the Nawab`s army consisted of fifty thousand soldiers and heavy artillery operated by about forty French army men. However, out of this fifty thousand army sixteen thousand was withheld before the Battle of Plassey. 


The Principal Officers of British force were- Major Killpatrick, Major Grant, Major Eyre Coote, Captain Gaupp, and Captain Richard Knox etc. The fundamental pillars of Nawab`s army were Mir Jafar, Mir Madan, Manik Chand, Rai Durlabh and Monsieur Sinfray as the French artillary officer. 


The battle of Plassey started at the very hot and humid morning of June 23, 1757 at about 7 am when Nawab`s army came out of camp and launched a massive cannonade against the English camp. Mir Jafar stood detached with his sixteen thousand soldiers from the main body of the Nawab`s army. Still Siraj was fighting along with rest of his army and the victory was about to come on Nawab`s side. But suddenly Mir Madan, who was one of the Nawab`s most loyal officers, was fatally wounded by a canonball of enemy. The cannonade of the French was not very useful as British guns had greater range than those of the Nawab side. 


At noon a heavy shower began. British could cover their canons and muskets but the French was unable to cover the guns. As a result the French canonade ceased working in the afternoon. The Battle of Plassey resumed when British chief officer Mr. Kilpatrick suddenly attacked against the water pond to the Nawab`s army. Mir Jafar though standing at the closest position to the English camp revealed his treachery and refused to attack the enemy. Moreover cannonade did not come into use due to the rainfall. So by the sunset Nawab`s army was in full retreat and British had command over the battlefield. Siraj Ud Daulah escaped from the battlefield but was caught later. In this Battle of Plassey British lost only twenty-two army men and fifty were wounded (most of them were native Sepoys) while on Nawab`s side about five hundred men died and wounded. 


The Battle of Plassey is considered as the landmark of history which denoted the starting of British dominion in the land of India. 

Slave Dynasty in India

The Muslim religion was introduced in India with the establishment of Turkish rule. Delhi became the first capital under Turkish rule. Muhammad of Ghur used to raid in India and eventually conquered Delhi. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, slave cum lieutenant assisted him in those expeditions. With the introduction of `Mamluks`scheme(Material slavery), Aybak became advantageous to rise up out of his birth status and achieved the right for higher position. This trusted slave of Muhammad Ghur became the incharge of North India. After the death of Ghur, Aybak became his successor. When Aybak, the slave raised to the status of sultan, the equality concept in Islam reached to its highest position. The Slave Dynasty served as the first Turkish Dynasty in India from 1206 to 1290. 


Qutb-ud-din Aibak excercised his rule over the provisions where he was the Ghori`s local receiver-general during the periodic expeditions. He initially ruled from Lohor to Delhi later develoved as capital. Aybak During his period took initiative to construct Delhi`s Earliest monuments, the `Qutub Minar` and the `Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque` (the fisrt mosque in Delhi). But these monuments remained incomplete as Aybak died accidentally in 1210. Aram shah, the successor of Aybak turned to be an incapable ruler.The Sultanate of Delhi was facing some internal problems that time. The `Chihalgani` or the `Corp of Forty` invited Shams-ud-din iltutmish to replace Aram Shah. 


Iltutmish,the successor of Aybak completed his unfinished works.The column was named after Khwaja Qutub-ud-din.A mosque was also built on Sultan`s order.This Turkish slave turned Sultan, married to Aybak`s daughter. Afet becoming the Sultan, Iltutmish faced a feeling of indignation from the Amirs of Delhi. But he managed the resentment strongly.During the reign of Iltutmish, the Mongols attacked India for the first time under the leadership of Genghis Khan.In 1236 iltutmish died. He nominated his daughter Raziya as his heirness on his death bed. Sultana Raziya and her husband Altunia were killed in their way to Delhi as the nobels of the court disagrees to bow their hand infront of a women. They offered the throne to Iltutmish`s surviving son Rukh-ud-din Firuz. Bahram and Masad,next to successors were incompetent. The youngest son of Iltutmish, Nasiruddin Mahmud was raised as the sultan in 1246.Mahmud used to spend more of his time in prayers. So that state affairs were managed by his Prime minister Ghiyas ud din Balban. 


Balban declared himself the sultan after the death of Nasiruddin. He paid more attention to the production of Weapons.He broke down the `Chihalgani`.He ruled from 1266 till his death with a strong hand as he believed that the king should be very powerful. Balban adopted a blood and iron policy to maintain peace. He completed the task which were started by Iltutmish.He made the muslim rule in India so strong that it lasted in one form or the other till 1857. Balban`s two son,one died before he could succeed and one refused the throne as he was the governor of bengal. Thus it made Balban to choose his grandson Kai Khusro to be the Successor. But when Balban died, the Muiz ud din Qaiqabad became the ruler. After four years of his reign, he suffered a paralystic stroke and was killed. His nobels replaced him by his three year old son Kaimus. The most important institution that developed under the Slave Dynasty was the `Chihalgani` or the Forty. Iltutmish recognized them as his personal supporter. To strengthen his rule, Balban crushed the power of these Forties, but actually this decision destroyed the real power of the Slave Dynasty. Jalal-ud-din Feroz Khalji overthrown the slave Dynasty and established the Khilji Dynasty. 

List of sultans

Qutb-ud-din Aybak         1206 – 1210

Aram Shah                         1210 – 1211

Shams ud din Iltutmish   1211 – 1236 son-in-law of Qut-bud-din Aybak

Rukn ud din Firuz                1236         son of Iltutmish

Raziyyat-ud-din Sultana 1236 – 1240 daughter of Iltutmish

Muiz ud din Bahram              1240 – 1242 son of Iltutmish

Ala ud din Masud              1242 – 1246 son of Ruk-nud-din

Nasir ud din Mahmud         1246 – 1266 son of Iltutmish

Ghiyas ud din Balban         1266 – 1286 ex-slave, father-in-law of Sultan Nasir ud din Mahmud

Muiz ud din Qaiqabad         1286 – 1290 grandson of Balban and Nasir-ud-din

India : 1760 (Robert Clive) : Map

Ashokan Dhamma

Ashokan Dhamma


Ashokan Dhamma was the most discussed religious policy ever adopted by King Ashoka. Ashokan Dhamma disseminated teachings and knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures.


Ashoka was the first king of the Maurya Dynasty who accepted Buddhism not only as his personal religion but also established it as his state religion. Ashoka followed a religious policy of his own and is remembered by posterity for his famous policy of "Dhamma" or "Law of Piety". After converting into Buddhism, Ashoka disseminated the teachings and knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures. He always had faith in morals and principles and had high ideals in life. These came to be known as Dhamma of Emperor Ashoka. 


The word "Dhamma" is the Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word "Dharma" and Ashoka`s Dhamma is a philosophical entity that highlighted on the high ideals and spiritual enlightenment as a key to successful life. When Pillar Edict II was translated, it described the "middle path", the way to enlightenment through Dharma that Buddha taught in his first sermon. Ashoka aspired for a harmonious environment where everyone could co-exist peacefully irrespective of his or her caste creed and religion. Some of his ideals were to shun war and spread peace, stop animal sacrifices, respect elders, masters treating slaves like humans, promoting vegetarianism, etc. These ideals if followed correctly led one to a higher level of living and one could finally attain "nirvana". As an able king, Ashoka took up the initiative and introduced welfare programs for the subjects, which was also one of the policies of his "Dhamma". Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas who were basically officers looking after the spread of these principles across Ashoka`s empire. Ashoka propagated the principles of Dhamma not just in India but also in countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and other South East Asian nations. 


Ashoka`s religious policy of "Dhamma" had carved out a permanent place for him in the niche of ancient Indian history. However there is a keen controversy among the historians about the religious policy of "Dhamma" and they have put forward several queries regarding the true character of Dhamma and its association with Buddhism. Historians have defined that Ashoka`s personal religion and his attachment with Dhamma was completely different from each other. They have also added that Ashoka`s association with the high ideals of Buddhism was gradual and not a sudden outcome of impulse. Since the rock edicts of Ashoka do not provide any information about the association of Dhamma with Buddhism, historians are at variance regarding this point. Moreover Ashoka in his edicts do not mention the name of any Buddhist monk or any guru or teacher who showed him the path for Enlightenment. 


Dhamma as reported by the historians was a policy of Ashoka in order to unify a nation so large that the people of one region could share the little in common with those of other regions. Dharma would bring harmony to India in the form of compassion. Serving as a guiding light, a voice of conscience, dharma can lead one to be a respectful, responsible human being. Edward D`cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to blend the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire". 


However, one of the elementary questions is the chronology of Ashoka`s preaching of Dhamma. According to Bhandarkar, Ashoka became a Buddhist in the 9th year of his reign, the year after the conquest of Kalinga. But other scholars confirm his attachment towards Buddhist Church in the 8th year of his reign. Bongard Levin however concluded a critical study of the evidences gathered from Rock edict XIII. According to him, Ashoka`s personal attachment towards Buddhism and his propagation of the ideals of Dhamma are completely different from one another. Personally Ashoka was a benevolent king who followed the duties of an ideal king before embracing Buddhism. "Dhamma" did not influence the personal religion followed by Ashoka. 

Pre Historic India

Prehistory The prehistoric period in the history of humankind can roughly be calculated from 200000 BC to about 3500-2500 BC, when the first civilizations began to take shape. The history of India is no exception to the above-mentioned fact. The first modern human beings or the Homo sapiens set their foot on the Indian subcontinent anywhere between 200000 BC and 40000 BC and they soon spread throughout a large part of the subcontinent, including peninsular India. They continuously flooded the Indian subcontinent in wave after wave of migration from what is present-day Iran. These primitive people moved in groups of few 'families' and mainly lived on hunting and gathering. While the males in the group spent most of their time in hunting, fishing, and gathering food like fruits, roots, and berries, the females gathered food, looked after the children and the dwellings where they lived.  Stone Age The age when the prehistoric man began to use stones for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided into three broad divisions-Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (from unknown till 8000 BC), Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000 BC-4000 BC) and the Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) on the basis of the specialization of the stone tools, which were made during that time. Paleolithic Age The human beings living in the Paleolithic Age were essentially food gatherers and depended on nature for food. The art of hunting and stalking wild animals individually and later in groups led to these people making stone weapons and tools. First, crudely carved out stones were used in hunting, but as the size of the groups began to increase and there was need for more food, these people began to make "specialized tools" by flaking stones, which were pointed on one end. These kind of tools were generally used to kill small animals and for tearing flesh from the carcass of the hunted animals. The basic technique of making these crude tools was by taking a stone and flaking its sides with a heavier stone. These tools were characteristic of the Paleolithic Age and were very rough. By this time, human beings had come to make and use fire. Mesolithic Age As time passed and the size of "families" grew in small communities, there was a constant need to feed all the members of the community and to lead a life of subsistence. In the Mesolithic Age, the stone tools began to be made more pointed and sharp. To ensure a life that had abundance of food and clothing (rough animal skin garments were being worn by the Stone Age man), the stone tools began to appear in increasingly specialized way. The simple handheld stone tools were now attached to thick branches from trees with rope made from animal skin and sinew. These tools are known as hand axes, which could be flung at fast-moving animals from a distance. Apart from hand axes, they also produced crude stone-tipped wooden spears, adzes, borers, and burins. This period also saw the domestication of plants and growing of wild varieties of crops. Because of farming, small settlements began to take shape. Archaeological excavations have unearthed Mesolithic sites in the Chotta Nagpur area of central India and the areas south of the Krishna River. The famous Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal belong to the Mesolithic Age and are famous for their cave paintings. The art of the prehistoric man can be seen in all its glory with the depiction of wild animals, hunting scenes, ritual scenes and scenes from day-to-day life of the period. The exact date of these paintings is not certain, but the oldest paintings are as old as 12,000 years. The prehistoric artist used natural white and red pigments in depicting the various themes, which were close to his heart and sustenance. Neolithic Age The Neolithic Age (4000 BC-2500 BC) or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age and is characterized by very finely flaked, small stone tools, also known as blades and burins. These stone blades are so sharp that the modern blades cannot match their smooth surface and cutting edges. The Neolithic Age also saw the domestication of cattle, horses, and other farm animals, which were used for dairy and meat products. An important invention of this time was the making of the wheel. The Neolithic Age quickly gave way to a number of small "cultures" that were highly technical. These people used copper and bronze to make a range of utilitarian tools. This phase or period is termed as the Chalcolithic Age (1800 BC-1000 BC). A number of such sites have been found in the Chotta Nagpur Plateau region, the upper Gangetic basin, Karnataka and near the banks of river Narmada.

Prehistoric sites discovered in India - 7 June 2009

7 June 2009

Prehistoric sites discovered in India

The Geo-Heritage Archaeological Research Centre has discovered three Paleolithic, 27 Microlithic and 26 Megalithic sites, ranging from the prehistoric to historic periods, in a micro-region in the Thenmala valley in Kollengode (Kerala, India). A large number of architectural remains such as postholes and sockets and rock engravings have been discovered in the area. Postholes of rectangular, circular and squarish shapes are considered as Neolithic residences. The style of the rock engravings dates back to the Paleolithic age, according to the research centre.
     V. Sanal Kumar, director of the Kollengode-based research centre, says the most striking aspect of the present study is the discovery of the culturally significant prehistoric and historic sites. He claims that "this is the first time in Kerala that cultural evidences from the prehistoric to the historic periods are discovered from a micro-region." He says that historians like M.K. Raghava Warrier and Selvakumar, Archaeology Department, Tamil University, Thanjavur, have visited the sites and helped him analyse the findings.
     The chronological sequence of cultural and archaeological evidence from the Paleolithic to later historic periods has been found at Kollengode, Muthalamada, Elavancherry and Pallasena. All these areas enjoy a uniform geographical background and lie in the same region between the Ikshumadi and Gayathri streams and can be termed as a single geographical unit. Mr. Sanal Kumar, in his research paper, claims to have located the ancient Chera capital Porainadu (Vanji) in the area.

Magadha Empire in India

Period of Magadha Empire : 6th Century – 4th Century BC.

Extent of Magadha Empire : Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya & parts of Shahabad & grew to be the leading state of the time.

Haryanka Dynasty : Originally founded in 566 BC by the grand father of Bimbisara, but actual foundation by Bimbisara.

King Bimbisara of Magadha (544 BC – 492 BC):
• Contemporary of Buddha.

• He conquered Anga (E.Bihar) to gain control over trade route with the southern states.

His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra (3 wives).

• His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.

Ajatshatru History (492 BC – 460 BC):
• Son of Bimbisara killed his father & seized the throne.

• Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine, which was used to throw stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that time.

• Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist Council.
History of Udayin (460 – 444 BC): He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganga & Son.
Shishunaga Dynasty :
• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (II Buddhist council). Dynasty lasted for two generations only.

• Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.
Nanda Dynasty :  It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties.

• Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.

• Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.

• Nandas were fabulously rich & enormously powerful. Maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry & 6,000 war elephants. This is supposed to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha.
Causes of Magadha’s Success :
• Enjoyed advantageous geographical position, i.e., near richest iron deposits (thus effective weapons).

• The 2 capitals of Magadha, Rajgir and Patliputra, were situated at very strategic points.

• Fertile soil of the lower Ganga regions.

• First used elephants in wars.
Note:
Archaeologically, 6th century BC marks the beginning of NBPW phase (Northern Black Polished Ware) which was very glossy, shinning type of pottery. This marked the beginning of Second Urbanization in India.

Governor-Generals of India

List of Governors-General

Governors of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal), 1774–1833

#	Name	Governor from	Governor until
1	Warren Hastings	20 October 1773	1 February 1785
2	Sir John Macpherson (acting)	1 February 1785	12 September 1786
3	The Earl Cornwallis[1]	12 September 1786	28 October 1793
4	Sir John Shore	28 October 1793	18 March 1798
5	Sir Alured Clarke (acting)	18 March 1798	18 May 1798
6	The Earl of Mornington[2]	18 May 1798	30 July 1805
7	The Marquess Cornwallis	30 July 1805	5 October 1805
8	Sir George Barlow, Bt (acting)	10 October 1805	31 July 1807
9	The Lord Minto	31 July 1807	4 October 1813
10	The Earl of Moira[3]	4 October 1813	9 January 1823
11	John Adam (acting)	9 January 1823	1 August 1823
12	The Lord Amherst[4]	1 August 1823	13 March 1828
13	William Butterworth Bayley (acting)	13 March 1828	4 July 1828
14	Lord William Bentinck	4 July 1828	1833

Governors-General of India, 1833–1858

#	Name	Governor from	Governor until
14	Lord William Bentinck	1833	20 March 1835
15	Sir Charles Metcalfe, Bt (acting)	20 March 1835	4 March 1836
16	The Lord Auckland[5]	4 March 1836	28 February 1842
17	The Lord Ellenborough	28 February 1842	June 1844
18	William Wilberforce Bird (acting)	June 1844	23 July 1844
19	Sir Henry Hardinge[6]	23 July 1844	12 January 1848
20	The Earl of Dalhousie[7]	12 January 1848	28 February 1856
21	The Viscount Canning	28 February 1856	1 November 1858

Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858–1947

#	Name	Governor from	Governor until
22	The Viscount Canning[8]	1 November 1858	21 March 1862
23	The Earl of Elgin	21 March 1862	20 November 1863
24	Sir Robert Napier (acting)	21 November 1863	2 December 1863
25	Sir William Denison (acting)	2 December 1863	12 January 1864
26	Sir John Lawrence, Bt	12 January 1864	12 January 1869
27	The Earl of Mayo	12 January 1869	8 February 1872
28	Sir John Strachey (acting)	9 February 1872	23 February 1872
29	The Lord Napier (acting)	24 February 1872	3 May 1872
30	The Lord Northbrook	3 May 1872	12 April 1876
31	The Lord Lytton	12 April 1876	8 June 1880
32	The Marquess of Ripon	8 June 1880	13 December 1884
33	The Earl of Dufferin	13 December 1884	10 December 1888
34	The Marquess of Lansdowne	10 December 1888	11 October 1894
35	The Earl of Elgin	11 October 1894	6 January 1899
36	The Lord Curzon of Kedleston[9]	6 January 1899	18 November 1905
37	The Earl of Minto	18 November 1905	23 November 1910
38	The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst	23 November 1910	4 April 1916
39	The Lord Chelmsford	4 April 1916	2 April 1921
40	The Earl of Reading	2 April 1921	3 April 1926
41	The Lord Irwin	3 April 1926	18 April 1931
42	The Earl of Willingdon	18 April 1931	18 April 1936
43	The Marquess of Linlithgow	18 April 1936	1 October 1943
44	The Viscount Wavell	1 October 1943	21 February 1947
45	The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma	21 February 1947	15 August 1947

Governors-General of the Union of India, 1947–1950

Name	Entered office	Left office
The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma[10]	15 August 1947	21 June 1948
C. Rajagopalachari	21 June 1948	26 January 1950

Governors-General of Pakistan, 1947–1956

Main article: Governor-General of Pakistan

Name	Entered office	Left office
Muhammad Ali Jinnah	15 August 1947	11 September 1948
Khawaja Nazimuddin	14 September 1948	17 October 1951
Ghulam Muhammad	17 October 1951	6 October 1955
Iskander Mirza	6 October 1955	23 March 1956