Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions .These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012. The major distinction between the Protocol and the Convention is that while the Conventionencouraged industrialised countries to stabilize GHG emissions, the Protocol commits them to do so. Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.”

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh in 2001, and are called the “Marrakesh Accords.”

The Kyoto mechanisms
Under the Treaty, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However, the Kyoto Protocol offers them an additional means of meeting their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms.
The Kyoto mechanisms are:

• Emissions trading – known as “the carbon market" 
• Clean development mechanism (CDM)
• Joint implementation (JI).

The mechanisms help stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their emission targets in a cost-effective way.


Monitoring emission targets


Under the Protocol, countries’actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.
Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of the Protocol.
Reporting is done by Parties by way of submitting annual emission inventories and national reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.
A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.


Adaptation


The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and deployment of techniques that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Fund is financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities.


The road ahead
The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as an important first step towards a truly global emission reduction regime that will stabilize GHG emissions, and provides the essential architecture for any future international agreement on climate change.
By the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012, a new international framework needs to have been negotiated and ratified that can deliver the stringent emission reductions the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has clearly indicated are needed.

Environmental policy of the Government of India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Environmental policy of the Government of India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Legislation	Year	Domain	Protected areas	Use of other natural resources
Indian Forest Act	1927	British India	Developed procedures for setting up and protection ofreserved forests, protected forests, and village forests	Regulation of movement and transit of forest produce with duties on such produce. Special focus on timber
1st Five Year Plan	1951
2nd Five Year Plan	1956
3rd Five Year Plan	1961
4th Five Year Plan	1969
Wildlife Protection Act	1972	India except J&K	Formalization of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,conservation reserves and community reserves. Protection to habitat and wildlife within premises of such protected areas. Development of National Board for Wildlife and State Boards for Wildlife for identification of future protected areas.	Penal codes for animalpoaching, and trade in products derived from protected animals
5th Five Year Plan	1974
6th Five Year Plan	1978
7th Five Year Plan	1980. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (with Amendments Made in 1988)	environment protection act 1986 (23 May 1986) I it is a legeslation which signifies the central governments determination to take effective steps to protect the environment.	stating that: No State Government or other authority shall make any order directing- (i) that any reserved forest shall cease to be reserved; (ii) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be used for any non-forest purpose; (iii) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be assigned by way of lease or otherwise to any private person or to any authority, corporation, agency or any other organisation not owned, managed or controlled by Government; (iv) that any forest land or any portion thereof may be cleared of trees which have grown naturally in that land or portion, for the purpose of using it for reafforestation.
8th Five Year Plan	1992
9th Five Year Plan	1997
10th Five Year Plan	2002
11th Five Year Plan	2007

Distribution of Rainfall in India

Rainfall is the important element of Indian economy. Although the monsoons effect most part of India, the amount of rainfall varies from heavy to scanty on different parts. There is great regional and temporal variation in the distribution of rainfall. Over 80% of the annual rainfall is received in the four rainy months of June to September. The average annual rainfall is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.

1. Areas of Heavy Rainfall (Over 200cm) : The highest rainfall occurs in west costs, on the western Ghats as well as the Sub-Himalayan areas in North East and Meghalaya Hills. Assam, West Bengal, West Coast and Southern slopes of eastern Himalayas.
2. Areas of Moderately Heavy Rainfall (100-200 cm) : This rainfall occurs in Southern Parts of Gujarat, East Tamil Nadu, North-eastern Peninsular, Western Ghats, eastern Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orrisa, the middle Ganga valley.
3. Areas of Less Rainfall (50-100 cm) : Upper Ganga valley, eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Southern Plateau of Karnataka, Andhra Pradessh and Tamil Nadu.
4. Areas of Scanty Rainfall (Less than 50 cm) : Northern part of Kashmir, Western Rajasthan, Punjab and Deccan Plateau. The two significant features of India's rainfall is that
   i. in the north India, rainfall decreases westwards and ii. in Peninsular India, except Tamil Nadu, it decreases eastward.

Facts About Indian Monsoon
Rainfall occurs in summer Rainfall is erratic and unpredictable Rainfall is unevenly distributed Rainfall affects Indian economy

SPATIO TEMPORAL VARIATION IN THE RAINFALL

1. Though the jet streams go a long way in explaining the origin of monsoon some questions remain unanswered. The great variation in the amount of rainfall both spatially and temporally, the high degree of uncertainty related to the date of arrival etc. are unexplained. Meteorologists have been trying to explain these phenomena from different angles relating to wide variety of generalisation. They have been monitoring huge high pressure or anticyclone zones that form a few kilometers below the jet streams. This ridge hovers over south Goa. It has been noticed that if the ridge moves towards karwar in Karnataka it does not augur well for the monsoon. This high-pressure zone, it is reasoned, blocks the low flowing south westerly monsoon from intensifying over the west coast. When it is not positioned well, several meteorologists remain skeptical about the monsoon's performance.
2. The unusual cooling of surface temperatures over the Arabian Sea by as much as 3 to 4 degrees before the onset of monsoon is another curious phenomenon. This is due to the cool Somali current. It pushes the cool waters of the Indian Ocean towards the Arabian Sea and the drop in temperature seen to have an impact on the progress of the rains.
3. Just before the monsoon sets over south-east Asia the atmosphere pressure over the Indian Ocean drops. Simultaneously about 10,000 kilometers away in the South Pacific there is rise in pressure, when the rain is over, this reverses. This phenomena called southern oscillations is key indicator of the south-west monsoon. When the pressure over Indian Ocean is lower than normal it augurs well for the good monsoon.

Global Atmospheric Research Programme and Monex

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the International council of Scientific Union (ICSU) organized a Global Atmospheric Research Programme (GARP) in 1969. Under the aegis of this programme, a Global Weather Experiment was conducted for one full year beginning on 1 December 1978. it was one of the biggest ever international experiments, on a global scale, for observing the earth's atmosphere from land and ocean based data collection platforms, and by weather satellites, which now monitor the restless atmosphere, was launched after several years of intensive preparations and planning. Some idea of the dimensions of the experiment may be gleaned from the fact that in May of 1979 as many as fifty two research ships were deployed over the tropical oceans between 10oN and 10oS, While 104 aircraft missions were successfully completed over different parts of the Pacific, the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. Of considerable interest to India was a special programme of the Global Weather Experiment. This was the Monsoon Experiment (MONEX). Its purpose was to study the influence of monsoon winds on the general circulation of the atmosphere. In view of its economic impact, the Indian scientists were naturally interested in improving their capacity to predict the vagaries of this seasonal phenomenon, which occurs year after over the landmasses of Asia and parts of Africa. In view of its seasonal characteristics, the monsoon experiment (MONEX) was designed to have three components:- Winter MONEX from 1 December 1978 to 5 March 1979 to cover the eastern Indian Ocean and the Pacific along with the land areas adjoining Malaysia and Indonesia. Summer MONEX from 1 May to 31 August 1979 which covered the eastern coast of Africa, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal together with the adjacent landmass. It also covered the Indian Ocean in the belt extending from 10oN to 10oS. A West African Monsoon Experiment (WAMEX) over western and central parts of Africa from 1 May to 31 August 1979 International MONEX Management Centers (IMMC) were set up in Kuala Lumper and in New Delhi to supervise the winter and summer components of the experiment. A large number of scientists from different countries came and worked at these Centers to plan and implement this international project.

Climate of India

Also see wiki : (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_India

)

India has 'Tropical Monsoon' type of climate. The word monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word 'Mausim' which means seasonal reversal of the winds during the course of the year.

Climate of India
The whole of India has a tropical monsoonal climate, since the greater part of the country lies within the trophies, and the climate is influenced by the monsoons. The position of the mountain ranges and direction of the rain-bearing winds are the two main factors that determine the climate of India Alternating seasons is the chief characteristic of India's Climate.

Factors Affecting the Climate of India:

1. Latitude: India lies between 8 ⁰ N and 37 ⁰ N latitudes. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India, thus making the southern half of India in the Torrid Zone and the northern half in the Temperature Zone.
2. Himalaya Mountains: The Himalayas play an important role in lending a sub-tropical touch to the climate of India. The lofty Himalaya Mountains form a barrier which effects the climate of India. It prevents the cold winds of north Asia from blowing into India, thus protecting it from severely cold winters. It also traps the Monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within the sub-continent.
3. Altitude: Temperature decreases with height. Places in the mountains are cooler than places on the plains.
4. Distance from the sea: With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate. Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have extremes of climate.
5. Geographical Limits:
   1. Western Disturbances: The low pressure systems that originate over the eastern Mediterranean region in winter and move eastwards towards India passing over Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan are responsible for the winter rain in northern India.
   2. Conditions in the Regions Surrounding India: Temperature and pressure conditions in East Africa, Iran, Central Asia and Tibet determine the strength of the monsoons and the occasional dry spells. For example, high temperatures in East Africa may draw the monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean into that region thus, causing a dry spell.
   3. Conditions over the Ocean: The weather conditions over the Indian ocean and the China Sea may be responsible for typhoons which often affect the east coast of India.
   4. Jet Streams: Air currents in the upper layers of the atmosphere known as jet steams could determine the arrival of the monsoons and departure of the monsoons. The Scientists are studying the jet streams and how it may affect the climate of India but much remains to be learned about this phenomena.

How Climate Change affects India

How Climate Change affects India

(http://www.indiaclimateportal.org/how-climate-change-affects-india)

Precisely at a time when India is confronted with development imperatives²⁵, we will also be severely impacted by climate change. Like other developing countries, several sections of the Indian populace will not be able to buffer themselves from impacts^2,8 of global warming. With close economic ties to natural resources and climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water and forestry, India may face a major threat¹⁵, and require serious adaptive capacity to combat climate change. As a developing country, India can little afford the risks and economic backlashes that industrialized nations can. With 27.5% of the population still below the poverty line, reducing vulnerability to the impacts of climate change is essential¹⁵.

It is in India’s interest to ensure that the world moves towards a low carbon future. Many studies have underscored the nation’s vulnerability to climate change⁸. With changes in key climate variables, namely temperature, precipitation and humidity, crucial sectors like agriculture and rural development are likely to be affected in a major way.

Impacts are already being seen in unprecedented heat waves, cyclones, floods, salinisation of the coastline and effects on agriculture, fisheries and health⁸.

India is home to a third of the world’s poor, and climate change will hit this section of society the hardest. Set to be the most populous nation in the world by 2045, the economic, social and ecological price of climate change will be massive.

The future impacts of climate change, identified by the Government of India’s National Communications (NATCOM) in 2004 include²⁵:

• Decreased snow cover, affecting snow-fed and glacial systems such as the Ganges and Bramhaputra. 70% of the summer flow of the Ganges comes from meltwater

• Erratic monsoon with serious effects on rain-fed agriculture, peninsular rivers, water and power supply

• Drop in wheat production by 4-5 million tones, with even a 1ºC rise in temperature

• Rising sea levels causing displacement along one of the most densely populated coastlines in the world, threatened freshwater sources and mangrove ecosystems

• Increased frequency and intensity of floods. Increased vulnerability of people in coastal, arid and semi-arid zones of the country

• Studies indicate that over 50% of India’s forests are likely to experience shift in forest types, adversely impacting associated biodiversity, regional climate dynamics as well as livelihoods based on forest products.

India stands to lose on too many counts to allow a ‘climate-politics-as-usual’ scenario. Therefore, positive engagement with global climate negotiations at the next UNFCCC meeting in December 2009 is crucial⁸.

India’s accelerating emissions

Although not an emitter historically, India currently has one of the fastest growing economies in the world. With a government target of 8% GDP to achieve developmental priorities¹⁶, a share of one sixth of the global population, and changing consumption patterns, India’s emissions are set to increase dramatically.

Growing at an almost breakneck pace, and guzzling coal, gas and oil in large quantities⁴, we are today, the fourth largest emitter of greenhouse gases worldwide. Although our per-capita emissions are among the lowest in the world, our growth rates imply that the past is no predictor of the future⁸. The most recent IPCC report suggests that India will experience the greatest increase in energy and greenhouse gas emissions in the world if it sustains a high annual economic growth rate. The International energy Agency predicts that India will become the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases by as early as 2015.

India imports large quantities of fossil fuels to meet its energy needs, and the burning of fossil fuels alone accounts for 83% of India’s carbon dioxide emissions. Nearly 70% of our electricity supply comes from coal.



Although India has maintained its clear economic and social development imperatives, the government recognizes that climate change is an serious problem, and that business as usual is no longer the way forward.

India on climate change

India has committed to actively engage in multilateral negotiations in the UNFCCC, in a ‘positive and forward-looking manner’¹⁵. The government recognizes that ‘global warming will affect us seriously’ but maintains that the ‘most important adaptation measure to climate change is development itself’⁸. This has ensured that India’s position at the UNFCC has stubbornly remained ‘common but differentiated responsibility’. Under the UNFCCC agreement itself, India is not subject to any binding emission reduction targets until the year 2012.

In spite of this guarded stand, India has ‘declared’ that even as it pursues its social and development objectives, it will not allow its per capita emissions to exceed those of developed countries. The 11th 5-year plan does make headway in reducing energy intensity per unit of GHG by 20 percent while boosting cleaner and renewable energy⁸.

In June 2008, the Prime minister released the much awaited National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The NAPCC outlines a strategy by which India will adapt to climate change, while maintaining a high growth rate, protecting poor and vulnerable sections of society and achieving national growth objectives¹¹. It focuses on eight areas intended to deliver maximal benefits to development and climate change (mitigation and adaptation). However, detailed action plans for each mission, and any clear targets are missing from the report⁸.

Although the action plan may be a missed opportunity for leadership on climate change, the good news is that change is coming⁸. Realising that the market is changing, and not to be left behind in the global race, Indian businesses are beginning to take on climate change as a business issue.

What we need now is for the government of India to capitalize on India’s position as a developing giant, take the lead and engage with governments of the world and the private sector for a low-carbon future.


References

1. IPCC report 2007
2. Stern Review
3. Design to Win
4. Imagining India: Nandan Nilekani
5. nasa.gov
6. Earth Policy Insitute
7. International Energy Agency
8. Malini Mehra. India Starts to take on Climate Change.
9. Public information bureau
10. envfor.nic.in
11. Pew Environment Trust
12. United Nations
13. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
14. The Nature Conservancy
15. National Action Plan on Climate Change
16. Sharma S., Bhattacharya S. and A. Garg. Greenhouse gas emissions from India: a
    perspective. Current Science Vol 90, No. 3, p 326-333.
17. KMPG report
18. Climate 101: Pew centre report on Climate change
19. Nasa Earth observatory report
20. Meteorological Office, UK.
21. Royal Society
22. Jacob Rukvitz; 2008; Climate entrepreneurs, GlobalFOCUS
23. State of the World report 2009
24. The Road to Copenhagen: India’s position on climate change issues
25. Climate Change and India: Impacts, Policy Responses and a Framework for EU-India Cooperation. 2008. Policy Department Economic and Scientific Policy, European Parliament