Mountbatten Plan (Partition of India)

The Plan

The British government sent a Cabinet Mission to India in March 1946 to negotiate with Indian leaders and agree to the terms of the transfer of power.
After difficult negotiations a federal solution was proposed. Despite initial agreement, both sides eventually rejected the plan.
An interim government with representatives of all the Indian parties was proposed and implemented. However, it soon collapsed through lack of agreement. While the Muslim League consented to join the interim government the Indian National Congress refused. By the end of 1946 communal violence was escalating and the British began to fear that India would descend into civil war. The British government's representative, Lord Wavell, put forward a breakdown plan as a safeguard in the event of political Deadlock. Wavell, however, believed that once the disadvantages of the Pakistan scheme were exposed, Jinnah would see the advantages of working for the best possible terms inside a united India. He wrote:
'Unfortunately the fact that Pakistan, when soberly and realistically examined, is found to be a very unattractive proposition, will place the Moslems in a very disadvantageous position for making satisfactory terms with India for a Federal Union.' This view was based on a report, which claimed that a future Pakistan would have no manufacturing or industrial areas of importance: no ports, except Karachi, or rail centres. It was also argued that the connection between East and West Pakistan would be difficult to defend and maintain. The report concluded:
'It is hard to resist the conclusion that taking all considerations into account the splitting up of India will be the reverse of beneficial as far as the livelihood of its people is concerned'.

Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as Viceroy of India in 1947.

Mountbatten's first proposed solution for the Indian subcontinent, known as the 'May Plan', was rejected by Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru on the grounds it would cause the 'balkanisation of India'. The following month the 'May Plan' was substituted for the 'June Plan', in which provinceswould have to choose between India and Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab both voted for partition.




On 3 June 1947, Lord Mountbatten announced his plan. The salient features were:-

1. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity. The country would be partitioned but so would Punjab and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that emerged would meet both the congress and League's position to some extent. The League's position on Pakistan was conceded to the extent that it would be created, but the Congress position on unity would be taken into account to make Pakistan as small as possible. Whether it was ruling out independence for the princes or unity for Bengal or Hyderabad's joining up with Pakistan instead of India, Mountbatten firmly supported Congress on these issues.
   
2. The Mountbatten Plan sought to effect an early transfer of power on the basis of Dominion status to two successor states, India and Pakistan. For Britain, Dominion Status offered a chance of keeping India in the commonwealth for India's economic strength and defence potential were deemed sounder and Britain had a greater value of trade and investment there.
   
3. The rationale for the early date for transfer of power was securing Congress agreement to Dominion status. The additional benefit was that the British could escape responsibility for the rapidly deteriorating communal situation.
   
4. A referendum was to be held in NWEP to ascertain whether the people in the area wanted to join India or not. The princely states would have the option of joining either of the two dominions or to remain independent. The Provinces of Assam, Punjab and Bengal were also to be divided. A boundary commission was to be set up to determine the boundaries of these states.

Reasons for the acceptance of "Partition" by the Congress

By accepting the Mountbatten Plan/Partition, the Congress was only accepting what had become inevitable because of the long-term failure of the Congress to draw in the Muslim masses into the national movement and stem the surging waves of Muslim communalism, which, especially since 1937, had been beating with increasing fury.




The Congress leaders felt by June, 1947 that only an immediate transfer of power could forestall the spread of Direct Action and communal disturbances. Sardar Patel rightly said, "a united India even if it was smaller in size was better than a disorganised and troubled and weak bigger India."

Difficulties created by the obstructionist policies and tactics of the League proved to the Congressthat the leaders of the Muslim League were concerned only with their own interests and the future of India would not be safe with them in the government. They would act as a stumbling block in the path of India's progress. The Congress leaders also felt that the continuance of British rule never was and never could be in the good interest of Indians. Sooner they quit, the better it would be.

Swadeshi Movement

Swadeshi Movement was a very popular pre-Gandhian movement. Emanated from the partition of Bengal the Swadeshi Movement gave tremendous inputs to the economy of the country.

Swadeshi Movement was a popular strategy for eradicating the British rule and for improving the economic conditions of the country. The concept of Swadeshi, as per Mahatma Gandhi, was to attain self-sufficiency which included employment of unemployed people by encouraging village industries and towards building a non-violent society. Thus, the main policies of the Swadeshi Movement included boycotting all types of British products and the restoration of all domestic products. The chief forerunners of Swadeshi Movement were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghose and Veer Savarkar. The writings and speeches of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and his associates paved the initial way. Tilak reached out to the masses through popular festivals. He transformed the traditional Ganapati Utsav into a public celebration where patriotic ideas could be spread. Later, he inaugurated a Shivaji festival for the same purpose. In 1906, Bengal honoured the great Maratha as a national hero. 


There were many other factors behind the growth of `The new spirit in India`. It was widely accepted by everyone that Britain was the cause of the country`s poverty. Three noteworthy books were published in the year 1901, which focused on the details of how Britain`s policies had destroyed India. The names of the books can be mentioned as Dadabhai Naoroji`s Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, R. C. Dutt`s Economic History of India, and William Digby`s ironically titled Prosperous British India. 


India was the country with once flourishing economy. At the same time the true face of European imperialism was being revealed. The belief in the supremacy of the imperial powers` military was being challenged. Moreover, various revolutions around the globe, like that in Ethiopia, Japan and others, had started to weaken Europe`s rule over Asia. The Partition of Bengal went into effect on 16th of October, 1905, which was observed as a day of mourning in Bengal. Normal and usual life had come to a halt on that unfaithful day. In Kolkata, thousands walked barefoot in silent processions to a mammoth meeting where the cornerstone of a federation hall, monument to United Bengal, was laid. The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was given a new turn, where the yellow thread that the people tied to one other`s wrists, symbolised the brotherhood between each other. 


The Swadeshi movement quickly gathered force in the country. Burning of British cloth in public places demonstrated the people`s determination not to rely on foreign products. The sale of English goods fell drastically, as Bombay Mills worked overtime to meet the demand for Swadeshi textiles. It became a matter of national and personal pride to wear coarse dhotis woven on local handlooms rather than fashionable Manchester cottons. Student volunteers further encouraged people to use Indian products. Popular enthusiasm was sustained by songs written by Rabindranath Tagore and others. Vande Mataram by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee became the national anthem. Further, the Swadeshi movement gave tremendous inputs to Indian industries. Home grown salt, sugar, matches and other products had started to be manufactured on native soil. On a larger scale, the movement gave a stimulus to Prafulla Chandra Roy`s Bengal Chemical Works. This action encouraged Jamshedji Tata to open his famous steel plant in Bihar. At the same time, Indian labours took their first real steps towards organisation. A series of strikes in Kolkata and other places demonstrated that the working class was growing weary of exploitation. 


Swadeshi Movement was described by Mahatma Gandhi as the soul of self rule in the country. 

Literacy Rate in India (Map)

Literacy Rate In Indian State: Census 2011

Rank	State	Literacy rate (2011 Census)	Literacy rate-Male (2011 Census)	Literacy rate-Female (2011 Census)
1	Andaman & Nicobar Islands	86.3%	90.1%	81.8%
2	Andhra Pradesh	67.7%	75.6%	59.7%
3	Arunachal Pradesh	67.0%	73.7%	59.6%
4	Assam	73.2%	78.8%	67.3%
5	Bihar	63.8%	73.5%	53.3%
6	Chandigarh	86.4%	90.5%	81.4%
7	Chattisgarh	71.0%	81.5%	60.6%
8	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	77.7%	86.5%	65.9%
9	Daman & Diu	87.1%	91.5%	79.6%
10	Delhi	86.3%	91.0%	80.9%
11	Goa	87.4%	92.8%	81.8%
12	Gujarat	79.3%	87.2%	70.7%
13	Haryana	76.6%	85.4%	66.8%
14	Himachal Pradesh	83.8%	90.8%	76.6%
15	Jammu and Kashmir	68.7%	78.3%	58.0%
16	Jharkhand	67.6%	78.5%	56.2%
17	Karnataka	75.6%	82.8%	68.1%
18	Kerala	93.9%	96.0%	92.0%
19	Lakshadweep	92.3%	96.1%	88.2%
20	Madhya Pradesh	70.6%	80.5%	60.0%
21	Maharashtra	82.9%	89.8%	75.5%
22	Manipur	79.8%	86.5%	73.2%
23	Meghalaya	75.5%	77.2%	73.8%
24	Mizoram	91.6%	93.7%	89.4%
25	Nagaland	80.1%	83.3%	76.7%
26	Orissa	73.5%	82.4%	64.4%
27	Puducherry	86.5%	92.1%	81.2%
28	Punjab	76.7%	81.5%	71.3%
29	Rajasthan	67.1%	80.5%	52.7%
30	Sikkim	82.2%	87.3%	76.4%
31	Tamil Nadu	80.3%	86.8%	73.9%
32	Tripura	87.8%	92.2%	83.1%
33	Uttar Pradesh	69.7%	79.2%	59.3%
34	Uttarakhand	79.6%	88.3%	70.7%
35	West Bengal	77.1%	82.7%	71.2%
-	Whole INDIA	74.04%	82.14%	65.46%

TRIBES OF INDIA

Tribes	Place where they inhabit
Abors	Arunachal Pradesh, Assam
Adi, Apatani, Khampi,  Miri, Tagin	Arunachal Pradesh
Angami, Ao, Rengma, Sema, Zeliang	Nagaland
Badagas, Todas	Tamil Nadu
Baiga, Bhils	Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat
Bhotias	Uttar Pradesh ( Garhwal and Kumaon
Bhutias, Mundas	Sikkim
Birhor, Mundas, Oarons	Bihar
Bodos, Chutia, Kacharis, Karbi, Mishing, Rabhas,	Assam
Chenchus	Andhra Pradesh, Orissa
Dangs	Gujarat
Gaddis	Himachal Pradesh
Garos	Meghalaya
Gonds	Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Great Andamanese, Sentinelesse	Andaman Islands
Irulas, Kotas	Tamil Nadu
Jaintias	Meghalaya
Jarawas, Onges	Little Andamans
Kanis, Uralis	Kerala
Khasis	Meghalaya, Assam
Khonds	Orissa
Kol, Oarons, Murias	Madhyapradesh
Kuki	Manipur
Lepchas or Rongpa	Sikkim
Lushais	Tripura
Meiteis	Manipur, Nagaland
Mina	Rajasthan
Santhals	West Bengal, BIhar
Shompens	Great Nicobar Islands

Korba tribes are found in the hilly tracts and plains of Bihar. These tribes are related to the Kolerion race. The Pahadi Korba (Bainbarias) and Dihariya Korba (Kisan Korbas) are the two sub-tribes.

Main occupation of these tribes is agriculture.

The Korbas select life partners from their own tribes after paying the bride money. They also allow widow marriage and divorce.

Korba tribes have a panchayat known as 'Mayari,' led by the eldest person of the tribe. The Sun, Goddess Chandi and snakes are the main deities worshipped. Korba tribes perform various ceremonies to appease the souls of their ancestors.

Buksa Tribe, Uttar Pradesh

Buksa tribes have been considered as one of the primitive tribes. They are mainly concentrated in the south-western part of the state. 

The societal structure of these Buksa tribes is quite traditional. Status of the females in the Buksa tribal community is also not very significant. The infant mortality is quite high and had shown an increasing trend over the years. Bhoksas reside in Tarai and Bhabar areas of Nainital, Pauri Garhwal, Bijnore and Dehradun. They speak in Hindi. 

They are non-vegetarians. They worship Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. They celebrate all Hindu festivals and perform rituals. The dead are cremated but when it is an unnatural death the bodies are buried. Bhoksas were a forest dwelling community. Their major occupations are agriculture and animal husbandry. They are also engaged occupations like service, wage labourers and basketry. They are land owners and cultivate their own lands. They have a well organised Panchayat system. They are patrilineal tribes as evident form the rules governing both the inheritants of property and residence after marriage. 

Kol people is a generic name for the Munda, Ho, and Oraon tribes (Adivasi) of eastern India who live in the states of Jharkhand, Orissa, and West Bengal, and spread over into parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, Bangladesh, and Nepal.

The Kol tribals in Uttar Pradesh are found mainly in the southern districts of Mirzapur, Varanasi, Banda and Allahabad. It is the largest tribe found in Uttar Pradesh, and numbered 135,617 according to the 1981 Census of India. They are said to have emigrated from central India some five centuries ago. The Kol are further divided into a number of exogamous clans, such as the Rojaboria, Rautia, Thakuria, Monasi, Bhil, Chero and Barawire. They are now Hindu and speak the Bundelkhandi dialect. Most Kol are landless, and the forest is their main source of income. They collect firewood and leaves from the forest and sell these at the local markets. The Kol have been granted Scheduled Caste status.

Munda Adivasi

The Munda are one of the major Adivasi groups of the Jharkhandi origin, occupy third position in the numerical strength. They are one of the strongest Kolarian tribes inhabiting in the region of Chotanagpur. They are found in the districts of Ranchi, Hazaribag, Palamu, Gumla, Singhbhum, Santhal Pargana and Giridih, Rohtas, Bhabhua, Buxar, Bhojpur and Purnia. They speak Sadani language. 

The historical traditions reveal that the Munda were original inhabitants of north-western India. After Aryan invasion, they came to Azamgarh and from there they migrated to chotanagpur crossing the river son.